Carbon dioxide emissions from existing housing stock Essay

Carbon dioxide emissions from existing housing stock - Essay Example The world community today has become increasingly conscious about the way we should treat our environment while carrying out routine jobs and business activities. The gaining popularity of green buildings, green technology and green standards of living are an indication towards the increasing consciousness for reducing the usage of substances harmful to the nature. The existing housing stock is another cause of worry for the environmentalist for couple of reasons. This study is an effort to look into the extent of carbon dioxide gases released by the housing stock and how some concerned citizens and organisations have taken up the task of minimising these emissions. Boardman (2007) contends that, "Of the homes we will inhabit in 2050, around 80 percent are already standing today and these have to be the main focus of carbon-reduction policies". This study is an effort to analyse the statement in right earnest and to understand the severity of the dangerous proportions it may acquire if we do not take the requisite steps for our future generations. In UK alone about a quarter of all carbon emissions are stated to be emanating out of the domestic building stocks1. This has resulted into efforts towards environment friendly housing. ... for Urban Design Information (RUDI) an independent body catering to the needs of researchers in the field of urban design and place-making, predicts that, UK might fall 'drastically short' of long-term targets towards reducing emissions without urgent action to cut carbon dioxide output from homes2. The Global Trends UK is not the only country facing the ill effects of carbon emissions. The Energy Information Administration, EIA (2008), a US government agency has come out with startling statistics pointing out the sources of carbon emissions in different parts of the world. As per the report from EIA titled, 'International Energy Outlook 2008', Carbon dioxide happens to be the most abundant anthropogenic (human-caused) greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Though studies point out that about 82 percent of the greenhouse gases are because of the energy consumption by the people and industries, but the EIA study points out that3 the building sector contributed to more than 48 percent of carbon emissions since 1990. This is an indication towards how the rapid pace of globalisation and industrialisation is adversely affecting the ecological balance around us. OECD, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, a group of 30 industrialised nations like USA, UK, Germany, Canada, Japan, Korea e tc, has been the torch-bearers of globalisation and industrial activities. The EIA report indicates that 'Carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the OECD economies are significantly higher than in the non-OECD economies (Figure). The figures indicate that if things continue with the existing pace the situation might be headed to uncertain times for the humanity. While the projected increase in the carbon emissions per capita is almost similar in OECD and non-OECD nations, the

Property Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Property Law - Essay Example The law of England and Wales permits a person to transfer his interest in property to others after fulfilment of certain conditions in accordance with law. It happens if a person dies intestate, bankrupt, or the property taken in execution of a court judgment for auction to generate the proceeds towards appropriation of liabilities (Clarke & Kohler 129). Donation ‘mortis causa’ in conventional terms is considered as a gift to someone in anticipation of the death of its maker. The transfer of property is conditional or in other words, rests with the recipient immediately subject to the condition that the will giver’s death occurs shortly (Harpum, et al 72). c) The cited gentlemen landed in the jungles of Borneo. They passed the jungle to celebrate the birthday of John in shack. During the stay at night, they heard horrible noises outside their house, which scared John. They were in fear of being attacked that would cause their death. Therefore, John handed over a bunch of keys of his house to Tim, car and a Cheque to Tim. f) Ben, the ultimate beneficiary, knew nothing about what was going on. Tim and the rest of the team members on their way to hospital in an ambulance for the treatment of John met with an accident wherein Tim was killed. b) The second deficiency is that John only handed over the keys of his house, car and not transferred it in the name of John. The Cheque given to John was not in favour of John to draw the amount through his bank account. In order to have a valid possession of the mentioned moveable and immoveable properties, Tim should have signed the deed. c) The third deficiency, the copyright of text book on property law, was not assigned to John, and the share certificates were not transferred in the name of John that were kept with the solicitor of Tim. e) As far as the rights of moveable and immoveable properties of John are concerned, according to new will

Critical Pedagogy Is Very Broad Education Essay

Critical Pedagogy Is Very Broad Education Essay The literature of critical pedagogy is very broad indeed and contains dense information. In fact, the political perspective of critical pedagogy towards the curriculum contributes much to creating abundant scholarships in the field. In addition, as many authors perceive, critical pedagogy lacks a set of definite principles; which makes the process of setting a unified definition of its premises so challenging. Still, the implementation of aspects of critical pedagogy in the classroom setting can have wide scale results on the teaching process as a whole. Hence, it is important to give a brief examination of the literature of critical pedagogy, an analysis of its core principles, and an investigation of the critique directed against its assumptions. By virtue of being critical, critical pedagogy and critical thinking share some common grounds. However, despite the existence of the critical stance in both disciplines, there are broad differences between them. One of these differences is related to the expectation of action in each discipline. In its emphasis on analysis and deep interpretation, critical thinking does not necessitate any action to achieve social change. On the other hand, the principles of critical pedagogy aim at creating a social action that comes mainly through educational practices. Another important difference has to do with the scope of interest of each discipline. Critical thinking is, by definition, individualistic and largely ignores the collective relations. Critical pedagogy, on the other hand, is more concerned with corporate action; that is why, as Burbules and Berk suggest, in critical pedagogy individual criticality is intimately linked to social criticality (55-56). Critical pedagogy might also be thought of as an extension of critical theory. Both critical theory and critical pedagogy employ their strategies with view at obliterating the hegemonic collective standards and paradigms. However, critical pedagogy is different from critical theory in the fact that it is mainly an educational philosophy that reacts towards the oppressive systems in the educational arena. The primary concern of critical pedagogy in this aspect is with issues that have to do with maintaining equal opportunities and establishing dialogical mode of discourse. As Burbules and Berk put it in the language of critical pedagogy, the critical person is one who is empowered to seek justice, to seek emancipation (50). Collins also describes the framework of critical pedagogy as being realistically involved in enlarging the sites within our institutions where genuine, noncoercive dialogue and reasonable opposition to oppressive bureaucratic controls can emerge (63). This proves that critical pedagogy involves an entirely new orientation that departs from traditional models of education and embraces a number of principles that may not be familiar in the generic pedagogical systems. The basic characteristic that separates critical pedagogy from other approaches is its celebration of social justice and emancipation. In addition, a critical approach to pedagogy is distinguished by an emphasis on dialogic interactions with view at giving equal opportunities for all voices. Critical pedagogy values the students experiences and locates these experiences at the centre of the learning process. The mission of critical pedagogy is more complex than it seems to be, and its scope encompasses a plethora of pedagogical approaches and practices. In Life in Schools: An Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Social Foundations of Education, McLaren points out that critical pedagogy aims at investigating, questioning and changing the relationship among different factors in the learning experience. These factors include classroom teaching, the structure of the school, and the social relations with the community. This imposes a great task on the critical pedagogue as he has to take into account a wide range of social and educational variables in his work (26-28). Critical pedagogy has its roots in Paulo Freire who is generally considered to be the inaugural philosopher of critical pedagogy (McLaren, Paulo 1). Although at first Freire dedicated his efforts to issues related to literacy in Brazil, his philosophy expanded gradually to embrace a cornucopia of social and educational issues that have been the object of criticism. In Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic Courage, Freire pointed out that what he called for was not merely a pedagogical method; rather, it was a strategy of living within the educational system (67). McLaren observes that the bottom-line of Freires pedagogy is to establish a non-hegemonic approach that is based on dialogue and interaction (McLaren, Paulo 2). This clearly shows the political dimensions of Freires philosophy. Freire actually stressed the importance of incorporating social and political critiques in the curriculum. This explains why his approach promotes a liberatory form of education that emphasizes emancipation and rejects all forms of oppression and domestication. In The Politics of Education, Freire maintains that the learning process should take into consideration two essential dimensions. The first is the context of authentic dialogue between learners and educators (49). The dialogue will empower students to move toward becoming knowing subjects and they will develop a relationship with the teacher in which one knowing subject [is] face to face with other knowing subjects (49). For Freire, by employing authentic dialogue in the teaching process, education becomes pedagogy of knowing rather than an experience of narration sickness (Freire, Oppressed 57). However, Freire warns that the dialogic process should not be reduced to simple to-and-fro questions that may also become tedious and sterile. Instead, there should be a focus on creating interaction between students and teachers in problematizing knowledge. In this regard, it is the responsibility of the teacher to inspire students to move forward within this critical practice (Freire, Freedom 80). The second dimension that should be considered in the learning process is the social realities in which students live. Freire states that authentic thinking, thinking that is concerned about the world is concerned with reality, and does not take place in ivory tower isolation, but only in communication (Freire, Oppressed 64). This suggests that earning should be connected to the realities of students lives. Otherwise, by ignoring these realities, educators will be creating divisions that make difficult the construction of our ideals of change and transformation (Freire, Freedom 55). A very influential concept in Freires philosophy is that of praxis. Freires praxis, which delineates critical reflection and action, entails the application of educational practices and philosophies to create a better educational experience. To this end, students should be viewed as active participants in the teaching process and in the formulation of teaching methods. They are engaged in what Simon calls a transformative critique of their everyday lives (Simon, Teaching 60). The teachers role here resides in encouraging students to get involved in reflection on their worlds so as to assist them in engaging in critical consciousness. For Freire, the development of critical consciousness in the student can be attained by means of implementing what he called the problem-posing model of education. Freire proposed this model as a counterpart to the banking system of education dominating the educational institutions. He asserts that the banking system fosters domination and oppression, whereas the problem-posing mode promotes liberation and democracy. He goes on to claim that whereas banking education anesthetizes and inhibits creative power, problem-posing education involves a constant unveiling of reality. The former attempts to maintain the submersion of consciousness; the latter strives for the emergence of consciousness and critical intervention in reality. (Freire Oppressed 68). Freires philosophy of education was adopted and modified by various writers. The most prominent figure in this aspect is Ira Shor, who was mainly influenced by Freire. In his Critical Teaching and Everyday Life, Shor criticizes the institutionalized modes of education which involve undemocratic approaches. He demonstrates that these traditional systems have restricted students from contributing to the learning processes. He calls for implementing learning activities that are democratic in nature. These activities are set against the notions of education that students have from their previous experiences within the traditional pedagogical system. The democratic methods of teaching would change the role of students from passive to active critical subjects in which they become active participants in their own learning (111-113). Shor also pointed out some of the limitations of Freires assumptions. Examining the applicability of the Freirean philosophy, he stressed the difficulties involved in implementing the principles of this philosophy within the classroom setting. In his When Students Have Power, he strongly argues that despite the benefits gained from the implementation of the assumptions of critical pedagogy; these assumptions do not go smoothly when turned into practice in the context of classroom environment (56). However, Freire responded to this claim when he stressed the fact that his educational philosophy was not merely a collection of strategies that could be implemented in all educational environments. Rather, different educational practices should be adapted depending on each individual context. Freire acknowledged that pedagogy is influenced by ideology and since ideologies vary a lot, the existence of a single philosophy of critical pedagogy is not practical. Hence, one cannot speak of pedagogy but must speak instead of pedagogies which respond to particular necessities, interests and conditions (Gaudiano and de Alba 128). The challenges of reaching a definite conception of critical pedagogy brought about different approaches to the philosophy by many writers. bell hooks, for example, supports Freire in promoting the link between theory and practice in order for the student to be the center of the teaching process. However, she does not employ Freires concept of critical pedagogy. Rather, she has introduced what she calls engaged pedagogy. She defines it as a system that combines anticolonial, critical, and feminist pedagogies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ for interrogating biases in curricula that reinscribe systems of domination à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ while simultaneously providing new ways to teach diverse groups of students (qtd. in Florence 10). A central feature of this model is the repudiation of the use of sophisticated language; a key feature of traditional educational methods that creates barriers between students and teachers. Roger Simon has introduced another significant approach to critical pedagogy which he calls pedagogy of possibility. In his Empowerment as a Pedagogy of Possibility Simon contends that proposing pedagogy is also proposing a political ideology. Hence, this model of pedagogy aims at enabling a particular moral project, a particular not yet of how we might live our lives together (372). He stresses the fact that such a pedagogy will require forms of teaching and learning linked to the goal of educating students to take risks, to struggle with ongoing relations of power, to critically appropriate forms of knowledge that exist outside their immediate experience, and to envisage versions of a world that is not yet in order to be able to alter the grounds upon which life is lived (375). Like Freire, Simon stresses the importance of not looking at his ideas as mere abstractions. Rather, they should be put into practice in all educational environments. Teachers who would implement the principles of the pedagogy of possibility must not expect a guideline for techniques to be adopted, but rather approach such a task strategically, locally and contextually formulating practice within an integrated moral and epistemological stance (Simon, Teaching 58). This will lead to a possibility for creating counterdiscursive activity that attempts to provoke a process through which people might engage in a transformative critique of their everyday lives (60). The complexities inherent in critical pedagogy have given rise to many critiques of its principles and assumptions. The scope of the criticism directed against critical pedagogy is so vast that it includes critiques from disciplines such as feminism, and postmodernism. It is of high importance to shed light on some these critiques directed against critical pedagogy in order to identify the potential challenges in implementing its practices in classroom environment. The first critique to be considered is that which comes from the very nature of critical pedagogy itself. Critical pedagogy inherently requires a constant investigation of its principles and practices. In this aspect, Giroux and McLaren contend that many current trends in critical pedagogy are embedded in the endemic weaknesses of a theoretical project overly concerned with developing a language of critique. Critical pedagogy is steeped in a posture of moral indignation toward the injustices reproduced in American public schools. Unfortunately, this one-sided emphasis on critique is matched by the lack of theoretical and pragmatic discourse upon which to ground its own vision of society and schooling and to shape the direction of a critical praxis (32). In her The Struggle for Pedagogies: Critical and Feminist Discourses as Regimes of Truth, Jennifer Gores critique of critical pedagogy is based on her contention that there are two distinct versions within critical pedagogy; she identifies these versions according the prominent figures who most contributed to the philosophy of each strand. The first version contributes to what she calls pedagogical practice. She suggests that Freire and Shor represent this strand of critical pedagogy which offers concrete suggestions and examples taken from their own pedagogical practice, and which is intended to help other educators (40). Gores criticism is directed against the other approach which she calls pedagogical project. This approach is represented in the contributions of many significant pedagogues, mainly Giroux and McLaren. Gore claims that their approach relies heavily on an abstract political vision and should not be called critical pedagogy, but critical educational theory (42). She goes on to argue that the major shortcoming of such an approach resides in its failure to delineate a set of practices for classroom teaching. As a result, their pedagogy might be seen to restrict its audience to those readers who have the time, energy, or inclination to struggle with it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and, in so limiting its audience, it subsequently limits its political potential (38). Essentially, Gores criticizes the fact that such critical pedagogues tend to focus on abstract theories that lack the potential for implementation. As an example, Gore cites the concept of empowerment, which is a key principle in critical pedagogy. Within the pedagogical project model, the concept of empowerment has been confined to extreme abstraction that forces teachers to be the agents of empowerment, without providing much in the way of tangible guidance for that work (Gore, What 66). Hence Gore calls for creating guidance for teachers so that principles of critical pedagogy can be translated into reality. However, Gore does not call for creating recipes for educational practices. Rather, she contends that theorists of critical pedagogy should take into consideration the context of the educational process instead of merely adhering to a unified theoretical background (Gore, What 67). As mentioned above, Freire himself rejected an essentialist view of critical pedagogy and called on teachers to adapt the learning process to the context of students experiences. In this regard, a great responsibility lies on teachers in determining the methodologies appropriate for each particular context. Similarly, Elizabeth Ellsworth employs a feminist perspective to refute any essentialist interpretation of critical pedagogy. She goes on to claim that even the term critical is a repressive myth[s] that perpetuate[s] relations of domination and hides the actual political agendas à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ namely antiracism, antisexism, anti-elitism, anti-heterosexism, anti-ableism, anti-classism, and anti-neoconservatism (93). She also believes that theorists of critical pedagogy have failed to launch any meaningful analysis of or program for reformulating the institutionalized power imbalances between themselves and their students, or of the essentially paternalistic project of education itself (98). Moreover, Ellsworth develops a deconstructionist critique of critical pedagogues. She claims that these pedagogues are implicated in the very structures they are trying to change (101). She criticizes the fact that much of the literature of critical pedagogy is the work of the dominant white middle class men. She goes on to argue that a relation between teacher/student becomes voyeuristic when the voice of the pedagogue himself goes unexamined (104). In his Elements of a Post-liberal Theory of Education, Bowers basic criticism resides in his claim that, in a way, critical pedagogy enforces the assumptions and values of Western metaphysics. Although he promoted the contributions of Freire and his followers, Bowers believes that Freires model emphasizes the modernist way of thinking, and thus it reinforces Western values and principles. For Bowers, all Freires pedagogy is based on Western assumptions about man, freedom, progress, and the authority of the rational process (127). He claims that the problem with Freires position is not that he advocates critical reflection but that he makes it the only legitimate source of knowledge and authority (129). Although Freires emphasis on dialogue as a basic component of the educational process has been praised as a democratic strategy, Bowers criticizes the very notion of using dialogue as a tool for emancipation. He contends that relying on dialogue in this aspect shifts the locus of authority from that of community and tradition to the individual who unifies thought and action in a new praxis (129). This focus on the individual on the expense of other collective concerns has lead to the failure of critical pedagogy in addressing issues related to ecology and the nature of the world. As he puts it, The problems of inequality and restricted individual empowerment are not nearly as important as the cultural roots of our alienation from nature. Regardless of how our agenda for social reform is framed, the bottom line has to do with reversing the global ecological deterioration we are now witnessing (159). A very important critique of critical pedagogy that should be highlighted here is that which comes from a postmodern perspective. In their Dialogue across Difference: Continuing the Conversation, Burbules and Rice explore the postmodern critique of critical pedagogy. The authors start their argument by suggesting that there are two versions of postmodernism that hold different positions relative to modernism itself (397). They call these two versions postmodernism and antimodernism. The authors suggest that a basic characteristic of postmodernism is that it goes beyond the norm but at the same time accepts the basic significance of the tradition it proposes to go beyond (397). They cite Giroux and McLaren as examples on postmodernist critics who relish some key democratic assumptions of modernism and yet go beyond them. Antimodernism, on the other hand, defines itself as the antithesis of modernism and is characterized by a strong antipathy to the language, issues, and values of modernism (398). The authors criticize this strand and assert that having deconstructed all metanarratives and radically relativized all possible values, antimodernism is left with no clear way of justifying any alternatives (398). The different positions of postmodernism and antimodernism account for the dissenting views related to the relationship between critical pedagogy and postmodernism. In this regard, some writers strongly believe that critical pedagogy is far from incorporating the premises of postmodernism. In Reflective Teaching in the Postmodern World: A Manifesto for Education in Postmodernity, Parker holds the view that many critical educational practices involve some modernist assumptions and fail to account for a genuine understanding of the process of knowledge construction from a postmodern perspective (16). Similarly, there are other feminist and postmodernist writers who assert that some strands of critical pedagogy do not address such issues which are of high importance in the field. In her Freire and a Feminist Pedagogy of Difference, Weiler explores the conflict she perceives between the modernist orientations of critical pedagogy and postmodernism. As a feminist writer arguing from a postmodern perspective, she claims that her goal is to retain the vision of social justice and transformation that underlies liberatory pedagogies (450). She suggests that the universal goals of liberation do not directly analyze the contradictions between conflicting oppressed groups or the ways in which a single individual can experience oppression in one sphere while being privileged or oppressive in another (450). Accordingly, Weiler believes that the theory that calls for the existence of universal experience of oppression does not take into account the specific contexts of the classroom experience. Hence the focal point of her argument resides in redefining the collective experience in the context of historically defined struggles (Weiler 451). In this regard, Weiler claims that Freire ignored the existence of diverse experience of oppression; hence she calls for a more situated theory of oppression and subjectivity, and for the need to consider the contradictions of such universal claims of truth or process (456). Weiler argues for a feminist-postmodern approach to confront the deficits in Freires philosophy of pedagogy. In this regard, she delineates three major issues where this process can be implemented. She names these as the role and authority of the teacher, the claims for knowledge and truth in personal experience, and the question of difference. Weiler concludes by asserting that the existence of different approaches in this arena does not necessitate abandonment of the goals of social justice and empowerment, but it does make clear the need to recognize contingent and situated claims and to acknowledge our own histories and selves in process (470). On the other side of the spectrum, there are many writers who strongly believe that critical pedagogy strongly incorporates some aspects of postmodernism. In Critical Crosscurrents in Education, Collins sheds light on this link between critical pedagogy and postmodernism as he suggests that, like critical pedagogy, postmodernist critical discourse is about the struggles for power to be heard about the empowerment of other voices' (76). In the same vein, Pinar et al. suggest that there is a possibility for developing a strand of pedagogy that engages in some postmodern principles. This version of pedagogy goes beyond the issues of oppression and suffering that are merely viewed from a class- struggle perspective (305). Other writers share the same view and contend that the philosophy of Freire and other critical pedagogues does incorporate some postmodern dimensions. Most of these writers approach this issue through dividing Freires writing into different phases, stressing that the postmodern orientations appear in his later work. Peters, for example, suggests that there are some postmodern ideas that can be clearly seen in Freires later work. These ideas include Freires emphasis on textuality, subjectivity, experience and culture in addition to his own interpretation of oppression and power (117). Similar to Peters, Roberts asserts that in order to locate the modernist inclinations in Freires writing we should look at Freires work as a whole, and not to focus on his writings during the first stage of his work. Roberts contends that Freire did promote some postmodern techniques in confronting all forms of oppression. He also highlights Freires confrontation with postmodern critics, especially in his later writing. Roberts examination of this issue concluded in his contention that Freire argues for what he called progressive postmodernism. Freire has stressed the fact that educators should challenge modern ways of thinking through becoming more tolerant, open and forthright, critical, curious, and humble (112). Clearly, the above argument proves that any attempt to come up with a clear-cut definition of critical pedagogy is utterly challenging. As mentioned above, there are multiple approaches to critical pedagogy, and there are also variables from other disciplines that are easily accommodated in this literature. All this results in creating critical pedagogies rather than one definite and universally- accepted form of critical pedagogy. These critical pedagogies are always involved in a constant process of redefinition and change, thus imposing great challenge on pedagogues in this regard. Despite these variations and challenges, teachers are always urged to go beyond the mere theoretical background of critical pedagogy. The process of theorizing without action creates no change and goes against the objectives of critical pedagogy. Teachers must promote an integrated approach of theory and practice, or what Freire called praxis. In other words, they should seriously consider the potential for implementing the premises of critical pedagogy in the teaching process. This implementation should go beyond the mere adherence to an essentialist view of a critical pedagogical methodology. Teachers should attempt, to the best of their abilities, to locate the teaching process within the realities of students lives. They should take into account the various variables, realities and experiences pertinent to students lives. Hence, they should adapt their techniques according to the specific variables pertinent to the context in which they work. The critique directed against critical pedagogy maximizes the need for this constant action on the part of teachers. In addition to adapting their educational tools to the classroom context, teachers are exhorted to encourage the involvement and empowerment of the students. Without putting the assumptions, principles and paradigms of critical pedagogy into practice, teachers run the risk of going within the traditional mainstream models of education. As Bahruth and Steiner beautifully put it: in our profession we have two choices; we can succumb to the mainstream and become programmed toward deskilling our intellect, or we can become critical pedagogues and liberate ourselves and those who choose to join in the dialogue (143).

A Separate Peace :: Essays Papers

A Separate Peace A Separate Peace by John Knowles is a complex novel that portrays war in many different forms. Gene Forrester was attending Devon School during World War II. This was a representation of different wars he was having within himself. Gene was feeling a kind of jealousy toward his friend Finny. He also felt like Finny was trying to sabotage him with relation to his schoolwork. Lastly Gene felt guilt, guilt from what was described by him as a â€Å"blind impulse† and also from having the truth revealed to him resulting in a fatal accident. Gene fought with his fears throughout the story. He thought that he was a complete person, full of what a man should be, but when he got to Devon and met Finny, he felt he was incomplete, as though he lacked something. He tried to find ways to fill the void by associating with all that Finny did. As a result he did become more well-rounded but he also felt guilt for the consequences. Guilt was also an internal war or conflict Gene had with himself. After â€Å"jouncing the limb† while Finny was on it, Gene sensed he was wrong in doing so but he was not fully regretful. After the truth came out though, and Finny once again broke his leg, Gene did feel complete remorse. At Finny’s funeral Gene didn’t cry but it’s not that he was not sad or that he was not sorrowful, but he felt like it was his own funeral and he knew that you don’t cry at your own funeral. Gene also thought that Finny was trying to sabotage his schoolwork by taking him places and convincing him to do things that were illogical and impulsive. Although this was not the case Gene really fought with himself, over-analyzing all of Finny’s shenanigans and deciding whether or not they seemed to be plots against him. As Gene went through life he was still not settled by the events that had happened in Devon those years.

Communication Theory Essay

Introduction Media censorship can be described as a practice where speech or other methods of public communication are considered to be harmful and sensitive or not suitable as determined by the government, media companies or other regulating bodies (West & Turner, 2010). Media censorship has been a common practice in the Arab world, and this has been the case due to cultural and religious influence. Several communication theories have been developed by scholars to try and explain media situations in different countries. This paper seeks to investigate the salient features and applicability of the cultivation communication’s theory to film and television censorship in the UAE (West & Turner, 2010). Hypothesis Film and television censorship in the United Arab Emirates is intended to promote and preserve political, cultural, and religious beliefs. Evidence gathered through the study of television censorship in the UAE According to Watson, every media item that is intended to be broadcasted to the public must cleared by the National Media council, the country’s media regulation body (2008). Television content and all other types of media, particular from foreign countries, must be subjected checks intended to find too content or topics. Television censorship mainly involves three topics that are regarded to be offensive to practices in the United Arab Emirates. The three include: pornography, material deemed insulting to religion (particularly Islam), and material that criticizes the country’s rulers (Watson, 2008). In most cases only material originating from foreign sources is found to be problematic. Local films Local television stations have generally conformed to the censorship requirements. Materials from various sources indicate that local films in the treated differently from the foreign films by the National Media Council (NMC) (Wikidot.com, 2008). During the International Film Festival held in Dubai in 2005, many films from Arab countries were subjected to screening and censorship due to violation of Islamic and other cultural views (Wikidot.com, 2008). All Local films presented during the festival were found to be suitable and none was censored. The conformity of local films to religious, political requirements is achieved in various ways. First, many local film makers are not always in a position to pay for film production. As a result film making requires funding from the Government and other agencies. Censorship is often applied at this stage, as film makers must agree to certain conditions before money is given (Wikidot.com, 2008). Secondly, many local film makers have been raised in a conservative environment that encourages and cultivates conformity to Islamic and political ideals of the UAE. Therefore, they have a way of ensuring that their work is self-censored before it is released into the public domain. They believe in their country and, therefore, cannot produce material that has a potential to affect the country’s religion and political stability (Wikidot.com, 2008). Foreign films All foreign films that come into UAE must be studied by the classification board which uses the guideline obtained from the country of origin (Wikidot.com, 2008). Upon classification, the film is dispatched to the film censorship committee, which examines the film carefully and then decides on what is to be removed. The film is then passed on to sub department that removes the areas that have been recommended by the censorship committee (Wikidot.com, 2008). Additionally, no foreign film will be permitted if it has no Arabic subtitle that conforms to the dialogue in the film (Watson, 2008). One of the most recent censorship activities done in the UAE involved renaming of an animation title. The animation’s title was â€Å"Puss in the Boots† and was renamed to â€Å"Cat in the Boots†. This was also done in Qatar, a gulf state with similar religious values (Salem, 2012, par. 10). Movies that cannot be edited are banned all-together. For instance, â€Å"Mohammed Naser, an official responsible for cinemas in the censorship department explained that when it becomes apparent that the editing required will take a big part of the movie, they conclude that there is no point to release it† (Salem, 2012, par 11). Two movies, Black Swan and Love and Other Drugs were banned because the included a lot of sexual content (Watson, 2008). In most cases, the editing of films that originally contained scenes related to nudity, swearing, political and religious material, the board then asks the agent handing the film to give it a rating of 18 years and over (Salem, 2012). Traditionally, this requirement has drawn criticism from industry players who feel that the  censoring committee should edit the films and allow everyone to watch or leave them as they are and give the +18 rating (Salem, 2012). The film censorship committee is chaired by the National Media Council’s undersecretary who is responsible for censorship activities (Wikidot.com, 2008). The â€Å"censorship committee has other members which are drawn from several ministries such as the ministry of education, justice and Islamic affairs, state security, social affairs, interior and Israel boycott office† (Wikidot.com, 2008). Analysis of the information gathered The Analysis of television censorship in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) will be conducted using the cultivation communication’s theory. Cultivation theory can be described as social theory that examines the long-effects of TV (West & Turner, 2010). The basic proposition of the cultivation theory states that â€Å"the more time is spend by people living in the Television world, they more likely they are to believe social reality that is portrayed on the Television† (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). Cultivation theory was developed by Gross and Gerbner, following extensive research work conducted to establish cultural indicators. The purpose of â€Å"cultural indicators† research work was to investigate and establish the cultivated effects of TV on viewers (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). The investigators were concerned with the implications of TV programs, particularly violent programs on the behaviors and attitudes of Americans. The cultivation theory clearly indicates that an effect of TV watching on viewers occurs after long-term and cumulative exposure. In the modern world, TV has taken a central position in the lives of many individuals and, therefore, has a greater potential impact on the behaviors and attitudes of viewers. The authors who developed the theory believe that because people TV in the United States and other parts of the world contain significant amount of violence, those watch them addictively often develop an exaggerated belief in the violence (West & Turner, 2010). From the evidence gathered in this paper, it can be stated TV censorship in the UAE is intended to prevent a potential negative influence on citizens. Many videos, particularly those originating from foreign sources, are often laced with content that is not acceptable in the UAE. The country has a conservative population that strictly observes Islamic religious rules. Additionally, it has a political system that is  unique to its position and needs, and therefore, cannot allow material that will directly criticize the established political system. UAE as a nation has progressive laws regarding the freedom of speech but this does not allow for dissemination of material that is contrary to Islamic beliefs or its political establishment. In consistent with the theory of cultivation, the UAE government is aware that films and other shows aired on TV have the potential to change the attitudes and behaviors of the masses (Salem, 2012). Therefore, in its endeavor to retain the country’s religious and cultural values, the government must censor all video material that originates from within and outside the borders. Conclusion and summary This research paper sought to use the cultivation theory to establish the how TV and film censorship in the UAE preserves its cultural, political and religious beliefs. It has been established that the country has a conservative population that observes Islamic beliefs that do not agree with the content in most foreign films, and therefore, strict censorship must be conducted before the material is allowed into the public domain. Censorship is also extended to material that contravenes the country’s political establishment. References Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The State of Cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337-355. Salem, B. (2012, May 13). Censorship: Great for pirates, bad for business. Retrieved December 15, 2012, from Variety Arabia: http://www.varietyarabia.com/Docs.Viewer/6ad7629a-a64a-4cea-9723-01f8f4f68a40/default.aspx Watson, I. (2008, January 22). Dubai’s Media Censors Tackle News, Sex and Politics. Retrieved December 15, 2012, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=18292869 West, R., & Turner, L. (2010). Introducing Communication theory: Analysis and Application. New York: McGraw Hill. Wikidot.com. (2008, January 10). Censorship: United Arab Emirates . Retrieved December 14, 2012, from

Is There Still a Place for Recess? Essay

In an era where each passing time is becoming an instrument towards one’s progress, every hour is considered critical. But is this ideal appropriate for children especially those who are still in their first step towards learning? Break time, or recess as it is more commonly known, becomes an increasingly hot topic when it comes to a child’s learning activity and capability. In 1989, the National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) surveyed state superintendents and found that 90% of schools grant their students at least one break period each day (Jarrett, 2002). However, during the same year, in the hopes of lengthening the students’ time for studying, many schools abolished break times. Most schools also reason out their increasing accountability for providing students with effective education pressures them to pack in more instructional time for children and thus, eliminating break times for the day. They also feel that break times have no effect on a children’s learning progress and in fact, can do more harm than good. More people believe that recess heightens unacceptable behaviour in schools. According to the Elton Committee when asked to describe the long lunch break period, recess is â€Å"the single biggest behaviour problem that [staff] face† (Department of Education and Science, 1989, as cited in Blatchford & Sumpner, 1998). Since children becomes more free during break times and are more often unsupervised during these times, most believe that it is during these times that bullying and violence occur. In this day and age where time is considered critical is there still a place for recess? Does recess assist in a child’s learning or does it just pose a problem to a child’s learning progress? This paper presents several recent studies on the said topic to discuss the relationship, and perhaps importance, of recess on a child’s learning progress, social development and health (Jarrett, 2002). The studies selected for this paper’s review are those that present the positive side of having recess at school. Presentation of the studies are in chronological order, that is, from the older studies conducted during 1998 to the more recent studies conducted until [year]. Furthermore, this paper hopes to determine or suggest some policies regarding recess and break times that can actually help in child’s learning capability. STUDIES ON RECESS AND ITS POSITIVE EFFECTS ON STUDENTS Blatchford and Sumpner (1998) conducted â€Å"a national survey examining the current situation and changes over the past 5 years† (Abstract, p. 79) because they think that break times, and its positive effects on children’s learning progress, are taken for granted. Moreover, they conducted the study because they believe that school staff members and parents alike lack the information, even the basic ones, on the characteristics of break times. Their sample included 1245 primary schools and 300 secondary schools. They found that majority of school staff members and parents have a negative view of break time but they seem to not notice the possible social value of break times to students. They also found students (16-year-olds) consider break time a big issue and think that this very issue should be taken seriously and considered throughout school life. In addition to this, students perceive that break times lets them take a break from ‘work’ and provide them with the opportunity to socialize and make friends. This is where the importance of break times comes in. Blatchford and Sumpner (1998) explain that as the students go from the primary to the secondary level of schooling, their social lives becomes more important and more critical. Thus, for the students, break times allow them to be sociable in deeper ways. For Blatchford and Sumpner (1998), this underlying principle should be considered by the school staff members so they can understand the importance of break periods. In 2002, Pellegrini and Blatchford discussed the importance of school recess to children’s development. They found that children become less and less attentive while their class lessons last. However, after they have taken their break time, they surprisingly become more focused on their class work. This is because recess serves as a break and relaxation period for a child’s tiring work of listening to his teacher. Children are more tired in the morning before the break since they have only just woke up and are still adjusting over the time. After the break, their body and mind become more relaxed and thus, they can focus more on their work. Pellegrini and Blatchford (2002) offered two educational theories that can explain why children become more alert after recess. According to one theory, the distribution of work and rest over the day helps in relaxing the mind and body and increasing the cognitive performance of any person regardless of age. Another theory explains that the longer time spent by a person working over one particular demanding decrease the cognitive performance of that person over that particular task. While adults may regain their focus on their work by switching to another less complicated work, children may regain their attention to the task at hand by providing them with break periods so they can have time to adjust. Pellegrini and Blatchford (2002) further contends the same argument as with Blatchford and Sumpner (1998) — that recess aid children in their social development. This particular argument is presented by the succeeding researchers as discussed in this paper. In the same year, Jarrett (2002) reviewed other researches on the effect of recess on children’s learning, social development and health. She also presented some of the negative connotations about recess. Relating recess to learning, Jarrett (2002) argues that since recess is a form of break from one’s daily routine, it becomes essential for children as it aids them to be satisfied and stay alert for the rest of the day. Jarrett also explains, as did Blatchford and Sumpner (1998), that recess becomes a tool for the social interaction of children. She explains that children become more socially active since during this time of the day, children learn to be independent by organizing their own games and deciding on the rules of the games they organize. Recess also becomes a tool for children to have physical activity in school since this is the time where children moves more freely and can decide on their own. Jarrett (2002) emphasizes the importance of break times with regards to physical activity since physical activities can significantly improve children’s health. In connection with Jarrett’s (2002) argument about physical activity during recess, Beighle et al. (2006) examined the physical activity of students during recess and outside of school (Abstract, p. 516) by studying pedometer-determined activities of 319 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students attending suburban elementary schools in southwest United States. According to them, it was during these times that children have more choices on which activity they want to participate in. They further contend that it is during these discretionary periods that children gain more â€Å"potential to make a significant contribution to children’s overall activity levels† (p. 516) since they experience these breaks everyday. They found that children engage in physical activity more during their recess period than in any other time of the day including outside of school and classes. Because of this, they suggested that schools should make more equipment available during these times to further encourage the children to engage in physical activities. Riley and Jones (2007) also reviewed some related studies on the positive effects of physical activity during recess. They strongly support Jarrett’s (2002) argument on the impact of recess on children’s social development. According to them, some children may start out as timid and apprehensive in their first days at school. Recess, however, gives them an opportunity to reach out to other children by playing and interacting with them. Moreover, conflicts between peers can be resolved during these times. It is also during these times that children learn what behaviours are expected of them. Adding to assisting in the social development of children, recess can also be an instrument to their language development. Recess provides opportunities for children not just to play with others but also to practice their conversation skills since it is during these times that children engage in conversations more freely with their peers without the fear of being reprimanded by their teachers. Riley and Jones (2007) also support others’ argument that recess can aid in children’s physical development. Kahan (2008), along with the others, supports the idea that physical activity, especially during childhood, helps children in more ways than one. He contends that schools should go beyond what physical education can offer in order to address the increasing reports of physical inactivity among children. According to him, physical educations in most schools are only offered with a cumulative duration of 85 to 98 minutes per week. However, the recommended daily physical activity of children each week should be more than 60 minutes. Moreover, not all schools have physical education in their curriculum. In fact, only 17 to 22 percent offer physical education to their students. Thus, physical education does not significantly contribute to a student’s physical activity. Kahan (2008) recommends that schools should provide children with sufficient break time periods along with other extracurricular activities since these are the times where children engage in more physical activities than in classrooms or physical education classes. According to him, recess contributes to one-third of the recommended 60 minutes of physical activity. Thus, Kahan (2008) purports that break times should not be abolished, but rather should be expanded. CONCLUSION Because of certain misconceptions about recess, more and more schools choose to abolish these periods due to their belief that recess can do more harm than good. Staff members and parents alike believe that inappropriate behaviors such as bullying and violence are mostly done during recess. Moreover, many schools believed that recess only distracts the focus of students from learning and that it only obstructs instructional time thus, posing a threat to their learning progress. However, researches contend that, in contrary to these beliefs, recess actually do more good to students than harm. Studies show that recess aid in children’s social, physical and even language development. During recess, children are freer to choose which types of activities they want to participate in, giving them a sense of independence and teaching them decision-making skills. They learn to organize their own activities during recess without the fear of rejection from their teachers. They also learn to interact with other children by playing with them or conversing with them, thus, increasing their ability to socialize with others. They can either make new friends or resolve conflicts with peers. Children’s language development is also aided by recess. Children do not just learn to interact with others; they also practice their conversation skills by talking or discussing with their friends no matter whatever their topic is. Thus, recess also contributes to children’s academic achievement. Moreover, recess acts as a cognitive interference for children so that they can regain their focus on their class work. Adding to the fact that it is during this time that children eat, recess also provides children to have more physical activities since this is the time where they can move and play free without fear of being reprimanded by their teachers. These physical activities which range from moderately vigorous to vigorous activities help children in becoming physical fit. All in all, it is safe to say that recess have more positive than negative effects. Thus, it is advised that such periods where children can develop in more ways than should not be abolished. REFERENCES Beighle, A. , Morgan, C. F. , Masurier, G. L. , & Pangrazi, R. P. (2006). Children’s physical activity during recess and outside of school. The Journal of School Health, 76(10), 516-520. Blatchford, P. , & Sumpner, C. (1998). What do we know about breaktime? Results from a national survey of breaktime and lunchtime in primary and secondary schools. British Educational Research Journal, 24(1), 79-94. Jarrett, O. S. (2002). Recess in elementary school: What does the research say? ERIC Digest. Kahan, D. (2008). Recess, extracurricular activities, and active classrooms: Means for increasing elementary school students’ physical activity. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 79(2), 26-39. Pellegrini, A. , & Blatchford, P. (2002). The developmental and educational significance of recess in schools. Early Report, 29(1), 1-7. Riley, J. G. , & Jones, R. B. (2007). When girls and boys play: What research tells us. Childhood Education, 84(1), 38-43.